How it works
The theoretical force is pressure times effective piston area; on the return stroke the rod area reduces it. Seal friction makes the real force lower, with efficiency usually 85–95%.
Formula
Fpush = p · π/4·D² · η Fpull = p · π/4·(D² − d²) · η V = (Apush + Apull) · s · (p + 1.013) / 1.013
Air consumption is given in normal litres (converted to atmospheric pressure) for a double-acting cylinder, excluding hoses and dead volumes. For dynamic movements, size the cylinder for about twice the required force.
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